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Curious about what happened today in history? Discover highlights from September 15th, including important events and defining moments from around the world.
Wassily Kandinsky (1866 - 1944) was a Russian-born painter and theorist whose experiments with color, form, and visual rhythm helped establish abstract art as one of the defining movements of the twentieth century. W. Kandinsky Biography
Why Are Manhole Covers Usually Round? || Kudos365 History Series | The Past That Shaped Us
How a simple piece of street infrastructure became an enduring example of practical design
We walk and drive over them every day without giving them much thought. They appear on streets from New York to Paris to Tokyo: heavy metal covers providing access to the networks hidden beneath our cities. And remarkably often, they are round.
The familiar circular manhole cover is such an ordinary object that its shape can seem inevitable. It isn't. Covers can be square, rectangular, triangular, or other shapes, and some are. But the circle offers a combination of practical advantages that made it particularly well suited to streets and underground utility systems. Its story is also part of a much larger transformation—the creation of the modern city beneath our feet.
Building a Second City Underground
Cities have long needed ways to manage water and waste. Ancient civilizations constructed drains, sewers, aqueducts, and underground channels, sometimes with openings that allowed workers to reach them. But the scale of underground infrastructure changed dramatically during the nineteenth century.
Rapid urbanization and industrialization produced cities with enormous sanitation problems. Modern sewer systems expanded, followed by underground networks carrying water, gas, electricity, telephone lines, and eventually telecommunications infrastructure.
These systems needed access points for inspection, maintenance, and repair. Those openings needed covers strong enough to support traffic, durable enough to survive outdoors for decades, and removable when workers needed to descend underground.
Cast iron proved particularly suitable. And for many applications, so did the circle.
Why a Circle Works So Well
The most famous explanation is wonderfully simple: A circular cover cannot fall through a circular opening of the same size.
A square cover can potentially pass diagonally through a square opening if it is turned at the right angle. A circle has no narrower orientation. Its diameter remains the same regardless of how the cover is rotated.
For someone working below a street, preventing an extremely heavy iron cover from accidentally falling into the opening is an obvious advantage. But that isn't the circle's only benefit.
A round cover does not have to be carefully aligned before it is replaced. Rotate it in any direction and it still fits. Its shape also makes a heavy cover easier to move. Rather than lifting and carrying the entire object, workers can sometimes stand it on its edge and roll it.
Circular structures can also distribute forces efficiently without the corners found in rectangular designs—useful for a cover repeatedly subjected to the weight and vibration of passing vehicles.
None of these advantages alone dictates that every manhole cover must be round. Together, however, they make the circle an exceptionally practical solution.
Why Aren't They All Round?
Look carefully and you'll find plenty of exceptions. Some utility covers are rectangular because the equipment below them requires a larger or differently shaped opening. Others are square because of local engineering practices, manufacturing choices, sidewalk patterns, or the particular infrastructure being accessed.
Modern access covers may also use locking mechanisms, hinges, specialized materials, or shapes designed for specific purposes.The familiar round cover therefore isn't the result of a universal rule. It is an example of something more interesting: a design that persisted because it repeatedly solved several ordinary problems at once.
Hidden Beneath Everyday Life
The cover itself is only the visible part of a much larger story. Under modern streets lies an extraordinary network that most of us rarely see: storm drains, sanitary sewers, drinking-water pipes, electrical conduits, gas lines, subway infrastructure, communications cables, and other systems. Cities could not function without them. The access points scattered across our streets are reminders that much of the infrastructure supporting everyday life operates almost invisibly.
We notice a road. An engineer may see what lies underneath it.
Historical Impact
The development of extensive underground infrastructure was one of the transformations that made large modern cities possible.
Improved water and sewer systems contributed enormously to public sanitation. Gas and electrical networks changed how streets and buildings were illuminated. Telecommunications connected homes and businesses. Later systems added still more layers beneath increasingly crowded streets.
All of them presented the same fundamental problem: infrastructure had to be buried for safety and convenience, yet remain accessible for maintenance. The humble manhole became part of the solution.
And its cover demonstrates an important characteristic of technological history. Not every innovation that shapes everyday life is dramatic. Some survive because generations of engineers and workers discover that a particular solution simply works.
Historical Significance
We often tell the history of technology through spectacular inventions—the steam engine, automobile, airplane, telephone, or computer. But civilization also depends on thousands of quieter design decisions. The round manhole cover belongs to that less celebrated history.
Its familiar shape reflects geometry, safety, manufacturing, transportation, and the practical experience accumulated while cities built increasingly complex worlds beneath their streets. The next time you walk past one, it is worth noticing.
Something that looks completely ordinary may represent more than a century of urban engineering—and a deceptively elegant answer to a very practical problem.
Sometimes the past that shaped us is right beneath our feet.
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day:
The hydrogen in your body and present in every molecule of water came from the Big Bang. There are no other appreciable sources of hydrogen in the universe. The carbon in your body was made by nuclear fusion in the interior of stars, as was the oxygen. Much of the iron in your body was made during supernovas of stars that occurred long ago and far away. The gold in your jewelry was likely made from neutron stars during collisions that may have been visible as short-duration gamma-ray bursts or gravitational wave events. Elements like phosphorus and copper are present in our bodies in only small amounts but are essential to the functioning of all known life. The featured periodic table is color coded to indicate humanity's best guess as to the nuclear origin of all known elements. The sites of nuclear creation of some elements, such as copper, are not really well known and are continuing topics of observational and computational research. APOD's main NASA site is moving: From apod.nasa.gov to science.nasa.gov/apod
A historical reenactment of a pioneer traveling the Oregon Trail in Wyoming.
Bureau of Land Management, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. View source.
Mark Twain (November 30 1835 - April 21, 1910)
Mark Twain (1835–1910) - KUDOS 365 BIOGRAPHY SERIES
Mark Twain, the pen name of Samuel Langhorne Clemens, was an American writer, lecturer, humorist, and publisher whose work helped define a distinctive national literary voice. Born in Florida, Missouri, in 1835, he spent much of his childhood in Hannibal, a Mississippi River town whose people, language, and river life later influenced some of his best-known fiction.
Clemens left school at an early age and worked as a printer, journalist, and riverboat pilot. His years on the Mississippi gave him both practical experience and the name “Mark Twain,” a river term associated with safe water depth. After river traffic declined during the Civil War, he traveled west, worked for newspapers in Nevada and California, and developed the comic storytelling style that made him widely known.
His early success came through humorous sketches and travel writing, especially The Innocents Abroad. He later wrote The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Life on the Mississippi, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court, and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. These works combined comedy, regional speech, adventure, satire, and social criticism. Huckleberry Finn in particular remains central to American literature because of its treatment of slavery, freedom, conscience, and life along the Mississippi, while also continuing to prompt debate over language and racial representation.
Twain’s career included financial successes and serious setbacks. He invested heavily in a typesetting machine that failed commercially and later faced bankruptcy. Rather than avoid his debts, he undertook an international lecture tour and eventually repaid creditors. He also helped publish Ulysses S. Grant’s memoirs, which became an important financial success for Grant’s family.
In later life, Twain became increasingly critical of imperialism, racial injustice, political hypocrisy, and organized cruelty. His humor often carried a serious purpose: exposing pretension and questioning accepted ideas.
Mark Twain died in Connecticut in 1910. His lasting importance lies in his ability to make American speech, humor, contradiction, and moral conflict central subjects of literature.
© Kudos 365 2026–Present. All Rights Reserved. | K365-BIO-005 | R/A
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day:
This sight was worth getting out of bed early. Just over four years ago, Comet C/2020 F3 (NEOWISE) rose before dawn to the delight of northern sky enthusiasts awake that early. Up before sunrise on July 8th, the featured photographer was able to capture in dramatic fashion one of the few comets visible to the unaided eye this century, an inner-Solar System intruder that has become known as the Great Comet of 2020. The resulting video detailed Comet NEOWISE from Italy rising over the Adriatic Sea. The featured time-lapse video combines over 240 images taken over 30 minutes. The comet was seen rising through a foreground of bright and undulating noctilucent clouds, and before a background of distant stars. Comet NEOWISE remained unexpectedly bright for over a month, with its ion and dust tails found to emanate from a nucleus spanning about five kilometers across. APOD's main NASA site is moving: From apod.nasa.gov to science.nasa.gov/apod
Video by Paolo Girotti
The Week in Review - The consequential news of the past seven days
This week news was dominated by the widening Middle East conflict and its increasingly direct effects on the world economy. Threats to two critical shipping routes helped push oil above $100 a barrel, while renewed inflation complicated decisions facing central banks. Russia intensified attacks on Ukraine's economic infrastructure, BRICS sought a larger diplomatic role, and the rapid advance of artificial intelligence produced unusually strong warnings from some of the industry's own leaders.
TOP STORIES
The Middle East conflict expands beyond Iran. The U.S.-Iran confrontation widened as Iran warned that energy infrastructure across the Gulf could become vulnerable to retaliation. Meanwhile, Iran-backed Houthi forces advanced in Yemen, increasing concern about shipping through the Bab el-Mandeb Strait. With the Strait of Hormuz already disrupted, instability around both waterways creates a potentially serious threat to global energy supplies and trade.
Oil climbs above $100 a barrel. Middle East supply concerns drove Brent crude sharply higher during the week, ending Friday above $104 and more than 8% higher for the week. U.S. diesel prices also reached record levels, increasing the likelihood that higher transportation and energy costs will spread into the broader economy.
Inflation increases pressure on the Federal Reserve. U.S. consumer prices rose 0.4% in August, strengthening expectations that the Federal Reserve may raise interest rates at its September meeting. The combination of persistent inflation, a relatively strong labor market and rising energy prices has made the Fed's policy decision increasingly difficult.
Russia intensifies attacks on Ukraine's economy. Russian strikes increasingly targeted industrial, transportation and energy infrastructure. Ukraine says air attacks have caused close to $10 billion in infrastructure damage during 2026, while disruption of ports and export facilities is placing additional pressure on the country's economy.
BRICS seeks greater influence amid geopolitical divisions. Leaders gathered in New Delhi as the organization attempted to demonstrate a larger role in international affairs. The Middle East conflict tested unity within the expanded group, while China and India continued efforts to strengthen their relationship despite longstanding strategic differences.
UNITED STATES
Inflation returns to the center of economic policy. The week's most important domestic economic development was the August inflation report. Consumer prices increased 0.4% during the month, reinforcing concerns that inflation is proving more persistent than policymakers hoped. Coming after a relatively strong employment report, the figures substantially increased expectations that the Federal Reserve could raise interest rates at its September meeting.
The Middle East conflict is making the decision harder. Oil prices rose more than 8% during the week, while U.S. diesel prices reached record levels. Higher fuel costs affect far more than motorists. Tnsportation expenses eventually influence the cost of food, manufactured products, construction and many services.
The Federal Reserve therefore faces an uncomfortable problem. Keeping rates elevated—or raising them further—can slow economic activity and increase borrowing costs for households, businesses and the federal government. But allowing inflation to become entrenched could prove still more costly.
Financial markets reflected that uncertainty. Stocks struggled through much of the week while government-bond yields remained elevated, although Wall Street recovered strongly on Friday.
WORLD
Iran and the Middle East
The Middle East remained the week's most consequential international story, but attention expanded beyond the direct confrontation between the United States and Iran.
Iran warned that additional attacks on its assets could bring retaliation against energy infrastructure throughout the Gulf. U.S. and Iranian forces had exchanged attacks against shipping as the week began, adding another dimension to a conflict already affecting petroleum exports and navigation through the Strait of Hormuz.
Diplomatic efforts continued. Oman has been attempting to develop an arrangement addressing navigation through Hormuz, but significant disagreements remain. Iran wants greater authority over passage through the strait, while Gulf governments remain wary of giving Tehran such leverage.
Events in Yemen added a second potential maritime crisis. Houthi advances increased concern about the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, which connects the Indian Ocean with the Red Sea and ultimately the Suez Canal. The strategic significance is substantial: Hormuz is a principal route for Persian Gulf energy exports, while Bab el-Mandeb is critical to trade between Asia, the Middle East and Europe.
Saudi Arabia suffered another setback Saturday when it temporarily shut its East-West oil pipeline following an aerial attack. The pipeline had become particularly important because it offered an alternative route for Saudi petroleum while Gulf shipping remained disrupted.
The result is an increasingly interconnected regional conflict in which attacks far from the original battlefield can influence energy prices and commerce around the world.
Russia and Ukraine
The diplomatic movement of the previous week did not produce a meaningful reduction in fighting. Russia instead continued an intensive aerial campaign against Ukrainian cities and economic infrastructure. Kyiv has experienced nearly continuous attacks by faster jet-powered drones, while industrial facilities, transportation networks and export infrastructure have increasingly become targets.
On Saturday, Ukraine said Russia launched nearly 500 drones. Ten civilians were reported killed and dozens injured in attacks across several regions.
Ukraine estimates that Russian air attacks have caused close to $10 billion in infrastructure damage this year. Blocked ports and other disruptions are also threatening agricultural and steel exports that are critical to the country's economy.
Ukraine continued its own attacks against Russian industrial and military infrastructure.
The pattern demonstrates how the conflict is increasingly being fought on two levels. The armies remain engaged along a largely difficult-to-move front, while each side attempts to weaken the economic system that enables the other to continue fighting.
Diplomatic efforts have not disappeared, but negotiations remain uncertain and the military reality has changed little.
China and BRICS
The BRICS summit in New Delhi provided China, India and other members with an opportunity to argue for a larger role in international diplomacy and economic governance. The Middle East conflict presented an immediate test.
The expanded organization contains countries with sharply different interests, including Iran and the United Arab Emirates. Reaching common positions therefore requires balancing relationships that would rarely coexist within a conventional political alliance.
For China and India, the summit also provided another opportunity to improve their bilateral relationship.
The world's two most populous countries have experienced years of tension over their disputed Himalayan border and broader strategic competition. Their recent efforts to expand transportation, trade and diplomatic contacts therefore represent a significant, if still cautious, improvement.
China also continued to demonstrate the strength of its export sector during the week, particularly in technology-related products, even as weaker domestic demand remains a challenge for its economy.
Europe
Europe confronted the same inflationary pressures increasingly affecting the United States. Higher energy prices associated with the Middle East conflict have contributed to renewed inflation concerns, making monetary policy more difficult just as European economies contend with relatively weak growth.
Political uncertainty also remains elevated. Germany continues to absorb the consequences of the AfD's recent breakthrough in Saxony-Anhalt, while other European countries face growing support for parties challenging established political coalitions.
The combination of energy vulnerability, inflation, weak growth and political fragmentation is again demonstrating how developments outside Europe can quickly become domestic European problems.
ECONOMY & MARKETS - The week's economic story can be summarized as a chain:
Conflict → Energy → Inflation → Interest Rates
Oil prices climbed above $100 as markets assessed the possibility of prolonged disruption in the Middle East. That matters because petroleum is embedded throughout the global economy. It moves goods, powers industries, supports agriculture and contributes to the production of countless materials.
Higher energy prices therefore increase the possibility that inflation will remain elevated even when other price pressures begin to moderate. Central banks then face a difficult choice.
Higher interest rates can suppress inflation, but they also increase mortgage payments, business financing costs and government debt-service expenses. They make infrastructure, factories and energy projects more expensive to build. The consequences extend internationally because the world's major financial markets are connected. Higher U.S. rates can strengthen the dollar, influence capital flows and increase borrowing costs for governments and companies elsewhere.
The Middle East conflict has consequently evolved into something much larger than a regional military confrontation. It is increasingly becoming a global economic event.
TECHNOLOGY & ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial intelligence produced a notable change in tone this week. Anthropic CEO Dario Amodei called for AI companies to slow development of increasingly capable systems and proposed stronger independent evaluation, industry coordination and international cooperation.
OpenAI CEO Sam Altman also emphasized the potential dangers associated with advanced AI and said his company would not pursue an initial public offering this year.
The significance lies partly in who is issuing the warnings. These are not outside critics arguing that AI development should stop. They lead companies competing at the frontier of artificial intelligence and have enormous incentives to continue developing increasingly powerful systems. At the same time, investment continues at extraordinary scale.
Qualcomm announced a long-term agreement under which Amazon could purchase as much as $60 billion of AI data-center chips and related products. The agreement illustrates how rapidly competition is expanding beyond the companies that initially dominated AI computing.
The industry is therefore moving simultaneously in two directions: toward greater capability and investment, and toward greater concern about whether increasingly autonomous systems can be adequately controlled.
THE BIG PICTURE - Connecting Current Events September 13, 2026
The most consequential development of the week may not have occurred in Washington, Tehran, Moscow or Beijing.
It may have occurred on a map. Two narrow waterways—the Strait of Hormuz and the Bab el-Mandeb Strait—demonstrated how remarkably dependent the modern world remains on geography.
Hormuz connects the Persian Gulf with the Arabian Sea and carries a substantial share of the world's petroleum exports. Bab el-Mandeb connects the Indian Ocean with the Red Sea and, through the Suez Canal, provides one of the principal maritime routes between Asia and Europe.
Instability around either matters. Instability around both at the same time matters much more. That helps explain why oil moved above $100 this week. But the consequences extend far beyond energy markets.
Oil powers transportation. Transportation moves food, manufactured goods and raw materials. Higher transportation costs eventually appear in the prices paid by businesses and households.
That leads directly to another major story of the week: inflation.
American consumer prices increased again in August, just as the Federal Reserve prepares to decide whether interest rates need to rise. The central bank cannot reopen the Strait of Hormuz or prevent an attack on a Saudi pipeline. It can only respond to the inflationary consequences.
A military conflict thousands of miles away can therefore influence the interest rate on an American mortgage.
Russia and Ukraine illustrate the same interdependence from another direction. Their conflict increasingly involves attacks against ports, factories, transportation systems and energy infrastructure. Each side recognizes that modern military power ultimately depends upon economic power. Destroying the systems that produce revenue, move goods and sustain industry can matter almost as much as gaining territory.
BRICS represents an attempt to respond politically to this changing environment. Countries including China, India, Brazil, Iran and others want greater influence over the institutions and relationships governing international trade, finance and diplomacy. Yet their interests frequently diverge, demonstrating how difficult it is to construct alternatives to an international system built over many decades.
Artificial intelligence might appear disconnected from all of this. It isn't.
AI requires enormous amounts of capital, electricity, semiconductors and physical infrastructure. Higher energy prices increase operating costs. Higher interest rates make data centers more expensive to finance. Geopolitical tensions influence where advanced chips can be manufactured and sold.
At the same time, AI executives themselves are increasingly asking whether another kind of dependence is being created—dependence on systems that may eventually become difficult to supervise.
There is a common thread.
For decades, technological progress and globalization allowed societies to build increasingly efficient systems. Energy could travel enormous distances. Goods could cross oceans cheaply. Capital could move almost instantly. Digital technology connected billions of people. Efficiency produced enormous benefits.
But efficiency often came from concentration: particular shipping routes, manufacturing centers, financial institutions, technologies and infrastructure became disproportionately important. The events of this week reveal the other side of that achievement.
The more interconnected a system becomes, the farther disruption can travel. A drone attack in the Middle East can influence oil prices in Europe. Oil prices can influence inflation in the United States. Inflation can influence interest rates. Interest rates can influence investment in artificial intelligence and virtually every other capital-intensive industry.
The individual headlines matter. But increasingly, the connections between them are the larger story.
© 2026–Present Kudos 365. All Rights Reserved.
Breil-Brigels. Lag da Breil. Reservoir with low water level.
Agnes Monkelbaan, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons. View source.
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